The Problem of the Transmission of Knowledge in Islamic Legal Theory

Although the epistemological problem of knowledge based on the testimony of others has until recently been neglected by Western philosophers, it has long been central to Islamic thought, in particular Islamic legal theory (usul al-fiqh), where the discussion concerns the transmission not only of the revealed texts, the Qur'an and Prophetic traditions (hadith), but also of the Arabic language and instances of consensus (ijma`). The basic distinction is between reports that provide knowledge of the facts they relate and those that yield no more than probability. Among the reports that provide knowledge are those where the number of reporters is such as to exclude the possibility of fabrication. In the case of such so-called concurrent or mutawatir reports the gender, religion and moral qualities of the reporters are not of concern. These personal characteristics do, however, figure prominently in the evaluation of reports that have not been so widely transmitted. The common opinion is that such reports (akhbar al-ahad) can provide no more than probability that the facts are as they state. The authenticity of the Qur'anic text is based on concurrent report, although there has been controversy as to certain details of Qur'anic recitation. Virtually all hadith, on the other hand, even those in the collections of Bukhari and Muslim, are not concurrent, and their authentication has remained a matter of extended controversy. In recent times the issues concerning knowledge based on reports has been most heatedly debated in relation to the old question of whether theological dogmas may be based on hadith that are not concurrent.